Saturday, April 24, 2010

A bacteria culture starts with 480 bacteria and grows at a rate propotional to its size.After 2 hours there ar

there are 960 bacteria.


(a) Find the population after t hours


y(t)=?


(b) Find the population after 3 hours.


y(3) = ?


(c) When will the population reach 1550 ?


T = ?

A bacteria culture starts with 480 bacteria and grows at a rate propotional to its size.After 2 hours there ar
In this problem, we will use the formula for uninhibited growth, which A=A0*e^(kt) where A is the new amount, A0 is the original amount, k is the rate of growth, and t is time. First lets find the rate of growth, k.





960=480e^(2k)


2=e^(2k)


ln(2)=2k


k=ln(2)/2





Then we can find y(t)





a)


y(t)=480e^(t*ln(2)/2)





b)


y(3)=480e^(3*ln(2)/2) = 1 358





c)


1550=480e^(t*ln(2)/2)


155/48=e^(t*ln(2)/2)


ln(155/48)=t*ln(2)/2


t=[2ln(155/48)]/ln(2)


t=3.38 hours
Reply:a.) f(t)= 480t


b.) f(3)= 480(3) = 1440


c.)1550= 480t


t=3.229 hours
Reply:y(t) = 480 * 2^(t/2)


y(3) = 1357


T = 3.4 h


Can bacteria spread through phlegm?

If you spit out some phlegm, does the bacteria in it float in the air? Or does the bacteria only spread from the particles coughed out.

Can bacteria spread through phlegm?
Bacteria can be spread through air droplets, such as in tuberculosis. This happens with any exhalation such as coughing, talking, sneezing, that causes particles larger than 5 micrograms. The particles usually travel up to 3 feet away; but anyone entering the room should wear a mask.


Same goes for viruses, including chicken pox, flu, viral pneumonia, measles, etc.
Reply:both in the air and the phlegm


Vaginal Bacteria/ 38 weeks pregnant?

I would like to know if anyone of you had a bacteria infection that you got prescribed Metronidazole 500 MG tablet for it? I'm 38 weeks pregnant my doctor was delivering a baby and the Nurse Partitioner prescribe this for me, but I kind of feel some nurses still need more practice on prescribing medication. The nurse only gave me this prescription telling me that I had a yellow discharge and that was a bacteria and I needed to take this prescription so I can get rid of it.

Vaginal Bacteria/ 38 weeks pregnant?
I think you should do some research on this medication to be safe!!!Or you could always consult with another doctor!


Good luck!
Reply:here is a site you can look at. questions like this are best asked to your doctor. i never take anything (or for my children) unless i make sure i understand everything. i have been known to ask repeatedly until i understand. my doctor knows this so just tells me right away.....saves us both time.


http://womenshealth.about.com/od/bacteri...

daphne

Which bacteria have incubation period of less then 1 day?

Please list all bacteria pathogens that have incubation period of less then 1 day (i.e. bacteria which cause symptoms to show up in human after less then 1 day since infection occurred)

Which bacteria have incubation period of less then 1 day?
Bacteria themselves generally do not have incubation times that are as short as a single day. Some bacteria form toxins in food that can cause nausea and vomiting in a short amount of time (under 12 hours) when eaten. This is where most immediate reaction cases of food poisoning come from.
Reply:Anthrax?





Some foodborne bacteria can present after 12 hours, but it depends on the quantity of the bacteria consumed, otherwise it can be upto 72 hours before symptoms appear.





Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter
Reply:Salmonella 4 hrs to 3 days...


The number of bacteria present in a culture is given by N(t) = 15,000(3t), where N(t) is the number of bacteri

The number of bacteria present in a culture is given by N(t) = 15,000(3t), where N(t) is the number of bacteria after t hours. Find the number of bacteria present after 6 hours.

The number of bacteria present in a culture is given by N(t) = 15,000(3t), where N(t) is the number of bacteri
N(6) = 15 000 (3(6))





=15 000 * 18





=270 000
Reply:This is a problem of substitution. Where ever t is, place 6.





N(6) = 15000(3*6) = 15000(18) = 270000 bacteria present.
Reply:N(t) = 15,000(3t)


t = 6 hours


N(6) = 15,000(3*6)


N(6) = 15,000(18)


N(6) = 270,000 bacteria
Reply:N(t) = 15,000(3t)


Since time is 6 hours, N(t) = 15,000(3 x 6)


= 15,000 x 18


= 270,000 numbers of Bacteria present after 6 hours.


Can bacteria help reduce solid waste? More specifically, can bacteria break-down plastics? Is this practical?

I am researching methods of solid waste management. In particular, I am exploring bioremediation technologies. I am curious to know why bacteria are not more comonly used to eliminate plastics from landfills.

Can bacteria help reduce solid waste? More specifically, can bacteria break-down plastics? Is this practical?
Go to the Environmental Sciences (or equivalent) department of any University or College, and you will find students isolating specific bacteria to do thi very thing, amongst hundreds of other promising applications; bacteria are being 'trained' to eat plastics, diesel fuel, waxed paper, newspaper and polystyrene cups, among other things. The reason they are not more commonly used is probably a function of time economics. Once the fumes from burning trash begin to hinder the breathing of the grandchildren of government lawmakers, something might happen!
Reply:Plastics cannot biodrade so bacterica cannot decompose the substance. They breakdown organics.
Reply:Most plastics are not biodegradeable. In a landfill there is not enough oxygen for decomposition to occur.


Can bacteria live and grow in inorganic material such as clothing?

For instance, will the blood stained clothes a butcher wears, continue to harvest bacteria even if he (hypothetically) does not get more blood or new bacteria into his clothes?

Can bacteria live and grow in inorganic material such as clothing?
Nearly everything has a bit of organic matter on it from dust etc. Combine that with a bit of moisture and some bacteria can live.





Clothing is however usually organic (cotton, wool, silk, leather etc) and there may be enough nutrients there for some bacteria to grow given just a tiny bit of water. Some of the synthetic fibers such as nylon even can be used as food by some specialized (but rare) bacteria.





Clothing in general also usually has dead skin cells, sweat etc from our bodies and that is enough organic matter for bacteria to live on.





As for not geting new bacteria on an article of clothing. That is just about impossible outside of a clean room or a sterilized box. I seriously doubt any clothing that touches bare skin can be kept bacteria free. (regardless of how much the person just washed).
Reply:Blood is organic material - so your example doesn't fit your question.


There are plenty of bacteria that are photosynthetic, and therefore produce their own organic material to survive. - Therefore, yes!
Reply:I doesn't take much for bacteria to grow...in your example , yes it will continue to grow!

camellia

Pathogenic bacteria, what about them???

guys, can you give me a little clue or knowledge about this pathogenic bacteria??


%26gt;and can you please tell, what is the effect of that bacteria to us???





....thank you in advance!!!


%26gt;take care guys,

Pathogenic bacteria, what about them???
The short answer is: any bacteria that gets into an area that it normally doesn't belong and causes an infection. ie. intestinal bacteria is very beneficial for breaking down and helping you digest food but if a few of them get into your bladder or a cut in your skin then it is a pathogen. Same thing goes for environmental bacteria. ie. the bacteria that causes tetnus doesn't cause any problems in its natural habitat, the soil, but if it gets in a cut then you have a problem.





Lastly, there are always exceptions to every rule. Staph. aureus and Strep. A (pyogenes) are always pathogens when isolated. Probably some others as well, but that is all that I can think of at the moment.





I hope I helped some
Reply:Wow! You got a week?!





There are literally thousands of pathogenic bacteria. All it means is that that particular bacteria causes a disease. There are also lots of bacteria that are helpful with processes like digestion, maintaining a healthy balance in your body, etc. And a lot of bacteria don't affect us at all.





The diseases of pathogenic bacteria can be as small as an infected cut on your finger, they can affect your lungs like pneumonia, they can cause leprosy, etc. You can google it for a more detailed description or you can check out a book at your local library.


Do bacteria really crawl?

From the saying "crawling with bacteria," if dirty water sits in the sink, will bacteria actually crawl out onto surrounding surfaces?

Do bacteria really crawl?
Nope.





'Crawling with bacteria' is the same as 'loaded with bacteria', but it sounds more dramatic and disgusting, as if bacteria are crawling bugs (which are high on the list of things people don't like).





Bacteria are far too small to be able to use legs in the form that we are used to. They have no muscles to power legs, and on a surface, the simple forces of nature, like static and surface tension, would make crawling impossible for them.
Reply:they don't they have special organells for locomotion like flagella and cilia.
Reply:Bacteria is a prokaryotic cell.............prokaryotes DO have flagellum therefore they are capable of movement. Bacteria do have flagellum and are capable of movement.





Hpwever in the content that you are describing, bacteria usually will reproduce and expand the surfaces it is on, therefore increasing its surface area and spreading.
Reply:some bact are motile but some are not.
Reply:Cells move for a variety of reasons. Bacteria swim by beating their flagella in order to exploit newly created micro-environment and amoeba crawl to gather bacteria to feed on. The cells of vertebrates must move to heal wounds, fend off invaders and the eukaryotic flagella is used to propel sperm cells toward eggs.








Speed (mm/sec)





Bacteria


10


Ciliate


1,000


Amoeba proteus


3


Neutrophil


0.1


Calculating Bacteria Population?

Let's assume that bacteria can reproduce once every 20 minutes during binary fission. Assume further that his rate of reproduction can be maintained. Now, calculate how many bacteria there would be after 1-hour period if you started with a single bacterium

Calculating Bacteria Population?
Bacterial growth





In this section we will return to the questions posed in the first section on exponential and logarithmic functions. Recall that we are studying a population of bacteria undergoing binary fission. In particular, the population doubles every three hours.





We would like to know the following:





How many bacteria are present after 51 hours if a culture is inoculated with 1 bacterium?





With how many bacteria should a culture be inoculated if there are to be 81,920 bacteria present on hour 42?





How long would it take for an initial population of 6 to reach a size of 12,288 bacteria?








http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biomath/t...











Exponential Population Growth


Tutorial to help you answer problem 1.


How many bacteria are present after 51 hours if a culture is inoculated with 1 bacterium? Use the model, N(t) = Noe kt, and assume the population doubles every 3 hours. (N(t) is the population size at time t and k is a constant.)





Tutorial





Now that we have convinced ourselves that an exponential model is appropriate, but not perfect, we will use the general model





N(t) = N0e k t (1)


where N (t) represents the population size at time t (Note: you may also use the model, N (t) = N0a t ). The question asks for the population size when t = 51. In order to use this model, we will need to figure out the values of the constants, N0 and k. At time t = 0, there is a single bacterium, therefore N0 = 1. Substituting N0 = 1 into (1) gives,


N(t) = 1 ⋅ e kt = e kt, (2)


We now use the fact that when t = 3, N(3) = 2 (the population has doubled). Substituting the point (t, N(t)) = (3, 2) into (2),


N(3) = 2 = e 3k (3)


We can now solve for k in (3) by "undoing" the exponential using the natural logarithm,








Using this value of k our model in (2) becomes,


(4)


Now that we have our model, we need to find the population size after 51 hours. Substituting t = 51 into (4) yields,








Thus, we find that after 51 hours there are 131,072 bacteria.
Reply:follow the formula: 2n


so if you start with 1 bacterium and replicates every 20 mins that means that in 1 hours there will be 3 replications therefore


2(3)=6


there will be 6 bacteria


1. Bacteria reproduce asexually, through binary fission. then how???

1. Bacteria reproduce asexually, through binary fission.





and how, then, does genetic variation arise in a population of bacteria?





does genetic variation within a bacterial population lead to antibiotic resistant strains?

1. Bacteria reproduce asexually, through binary fission. then how???
%26gt; and how, then, does genetic variation arise in a population of bacteria?


a) Through mutation.


b) Through the presence of plasmids that may not be in every individual.


c) Through the presence of genes brought in by lysogenic viruses.





%26gt; does genetic variation within a bacterial population lead to antibiotic resistant strains?


The antibiotic resistant strains are generally those that have a plasmid with genes that enable them to deal with the antibiotics, so, yes.





=


Bacteria can send a copy of a plasmid, and even bits of their chromosome, through bacterial conjugation. Look up "sex pilus" and "pilus receptor." With the right pilus and receptor, even bacteria of completely different species can conjugate with each other.
Reply:Genetic variations must arise through mutations, unless I'm missing something.


Yes, genetic variation leads to antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. The antibiotics kill off all the bacteria that are susceptible to it but can't kill the bacteria that is resistant to it. That strain of bacteria is left to reproduce and the antibiotic-resistant strain becomes the dominant bacteria.
Reply:Genetic variation occurs through mutations and through gene splicing, though the latter isn't natural.





Bacteria can also exchange DNA with other bacteria, I beleive this is called conjugation.
Reply:Mutations and conjugation. Sometimes the bacteria screws up its own DNA in the copying processes and they can exchange DNA from other bacteria.
Reply:Generally bacteria reproduce by binary fission, and sometimes a mutation occurs. Most mutations are deadly, but some are not.





But bacteria can conjugate with another bacteria and exchange genetic material, they do this occasionally. This is how antibiotic resistant strains occur.

lady slipper

Can bacteria live and grow in inorganic material such as clothing?

For instance, will the blood stained clothes a butcher wears, continue to harvest bacteria even if he (hypothetically) does not get more blood or new bacteria into his clothes?

Can bacteria live and grow in inorganic material such as clothing?
Nearly everything has a bit of organic matter on it from dust etc. Combine that with a bit of moisture and some bacteria can live.





Clothing is however usually organic (cotton, wool, silk, leather etc) and there may be enough nutrients there for some bacteria to grow given just a tiny bit of water. Some of the synthetic fibers such as nylon even can be used as food by some specialized (but rare) bacteria.





Clothing in general also usually has dead skin cells, sweat etc from our bodies and that is enough organic matter for bacteria to live on.





As for not geting new bacteria on an article of clothing. That is just about impossible outside of a clean room or a sterilized box. I seriously doubt any clothing that touches bare skin can be kept bacteria free. (regardless of how much the person just washed).
Reply:Blood is organic material - so your example doesn't fit your question.


There are plenty of bacteria that are photosynthetic, and therefore produce their own organic material to survive. - Therefore, yes!
Reply:I doesn't take much for bacteria to grow...in your example , yes it will continue to grow!


Which bacteria are most deadly?

what type of bacteria are most deadly ?





where can the bacteria be found ?

Which bacteria are most deadly?
E.coli - Spinach


Salmonella - Tainted food from china


Antrax - Letters from Osama
Reply:the one which kills you !!!!!!!!!!


Aquarium bacteria cycling question for experts?

I recently started a tank, after not doing fish for a few years. My ammonia has gone down to zero . That is testing just before the daily water change. The nitrite and nitrate are a different story. They have been stuck at 2 ppm %26amp; 20 ppm, respectfully. They have been this high for several weeks. This seems high to me, even for cycling my tank, but I don't think I should get rid of it ALL. Wouldn't that make the bacteria for the nitrite die or at least not multiply? Also What level should I try to keep them at? I understand zero is the target but what about during your initial cycle? Am I wrong in thinking that I want to have a little bit left in there to encourage bacteria growth?








Thank you.

Aquarium bacteria cycling question for experts?
You are exactly right that you need some in the tank to have additional bacteria growth. It's not uncommon for the nitrite to nitrate part of the cycle to be a few weeks behind the ammonia to nitrite part and even to be slow in completely growing out. It sound like you are coming along in fairly normal progress personally. The nitrite level is boarderline. I would rather see it around 1 ppm for the health of the fish. The nitrates are just fine, nothing at all to worry about there. I would suggest a series of small water changes to lower the nitrites a bit. Consider the type of fish you have and your current tank temperature and see if an increase of a few degrees in the tank temperature is possible, that might jump start the bacteria into completing the cycle. Also, lightly stir the surface of your gravel every few days to move bacteria colonies around a bit, that might encourage additional growth.





I am assuming you have an adequately sized power filter for the tank. Right?





MM
Reply:you said daily water changes? you shouldnt be changing your water daily that may be the reason for your problem. do you have fish in the tank or are you doing a fishless cycle? During the cycle there are a few stages.


1) amonia goes up


2) amonia keeps going up and nitrite rises


3) nitrite keeps riseing and amonia depletes


4) nitrate begins to rise and nitrite depletes


5) nitrate should then deplete


the bacteria is what breaks down these toxins so possibly by doing your daily water changes you are removing some of this bacteria needed to let the tank cycle.


Please give more info as to what size tank what fish are in there and anything else that you can think of.
Reply:Ok, do not worry about the nitrates if it is a freshwater tank. For the nitrites, I would get a product at a local petsmart, or petco that locks the nitrites making them non-toxic. Test your water again, and check to see if nitrites are zero, and nitrates if its saltwater. Then when they are zero, do a 20% water change, and you are set. If it goes back up, make sure to add the lock, and do the change sometime in that week
Reply:I know everyone has their own methods of cycling their tanks which work for them, in my experience if you just leave your tank alone and let it go through its cycle and possibly remove any carbon in your filters this may help eliminate all nitrites. And no you dont want to have any ammonia or nitrites in your tank, this should only happen during the initial cycling process. Nitrites at 2 are a little high keeping them under .4 is ideal and nitrates under 40 or 60 is good. So i would just try leaving the tank alone feeding minimally and removing carbon and see how that does for you in the next week to see if the nitrites lower.
Reply:Hi -





do you have any plants in your tank - floating and/or planted plants?





They'll help with the nitrate and nitrite levels - to keep them down. Anacharis is a good one for tanks. It will also oxygenate the water. I think it's one of the best.





Good Luck,





Ken


Staphylococcus bacteria in your nose?

How do we not get ill from that? Does the bacteria have to get into a cut, etc., in order to be dangerous to our health? Can the bacteria be spread from sneezing, picking (gross), etc.?

Staphylococcus bacteria in your nose?
Staphylococcus aureus, often referred to simply as "staph," are bacteria commonly carried on the skin or in the nose of healthy people. Approximately 25% to 30% of the population is colonized (when bacteria are present, but not causing an infection) in the nose with staph bacteria.





Sometimes, staph can cause an infection. Staph bacteria are one of the most common causes of skin infections in the United States. Most of these skin infections are minor (such as pimples and boils) and can be treated without antibiotics.





Staph bacteria also can cause serious infections (such as surgical wound infections, bloodstream infections, and pneumonia).





One area that is of concern is MRSA (methicillin resistant Staph aureus). While 25% to 30% of the population is colonized with staph, approximately 1% is colonized with MRSA.





Usually when staph is in your nose, you can be a carrier. Staph or MRSA infections in the community are usually manifested as skin infections, such as pimples and boils, and occur in otherwise healthy people.





MRSA is transmitted most frequently by direct skin-to-skin contact.





Most importantly, you can protect yourself from infections by practicing good hygiene; covering any open skin area such as abrasions or cuts with a clean dry bandage; avoiding sharing personal items such as towels or razors.
Reply:Yes it can spread by sneezing or having your finger in your nose and touching other surfaces. We don't get sick unless the bacteria spread from your nares to another part of your body.
Reply:If you are not ill you more then likely will not get MRSA. However, like my friend you can become a CARRIER for it due to having surgery after surgery, hospitalization after hospitalization. The bacteria can spread anyway a regular bacteria can spread.

dendrobium

What happens to bacteria that were used in a procedure that have been incubated for a longer period of time?

this bacteria was used for a Gram staining prodcedure. Before it was used, the bacteria was incubated for a long period of time. Would this alter the result in anyway? Does the bacteria cell walls get stronger or weaker with time?

What happens to bacteria that were used in a procedure that have been incubated for a longer period of time?
Unless you were constantly adding nutrients to your cell culture, (and unless you have some really expensive equipment, you were not), the bacteria would stop growing.





When that happens, the cell wall would become weaker.





The Gram stain uses Crystal violet dye which stains the thick peptidoglycan layer in the cell walls of Gram positive bacteria. If bacteria do not have this layer, they will not keep the crystal violet stain when washed with your decolorizer (usually acetone or alcohol). So the cells would only take up your counterstain (safranin, a red/pink dye). This would normally indicate that the bacteria are Gram negative.





Therefore if you have an old culture, the peptidoglycan of the cell wall would not hold the crystal violet dye. So no matter whether your bacteria are Gram positive or negative, you would only see pink bacteria.





So this would cause gram positive bacteria to appear gram negative.
Reply:This really depends on the type of culture and nutrient base used to colonize the bacteria. If the nutrient base runs out the microbes typically turn to one another for survival. In which case most will die as a result. If you there is enough nutrient base and environmental temperatures/pH is able to sustain microbial life you will have constant colonization.


Can bacteria be transmitted through odour?

we were watching an advert which claimed that there were more bacteria on chopping boards than toilet seats but i thought it's more to do with the type of bacteria rather than the amount. We weren't sure if any can be transmitted through the smell of something, as surely if you can smell it, a particle containing the scent has managed to reach your nostrils.

Can bacteria be transmitted through odour?
Bacteria are not transmitted through odour, but can be airborne and transmitted through tiny droplets of liquid or by attaching themselves to other matter, small enough to get airborne. At any moment in time, there are billions of bacteria surrounding you.





That said, I think today's world has gone mad with regards to hygiene. It is a known fact that the children of farmers, who play outside amongst the farm animals, and subsequent breeding bacteria, have vastly superior immune systems. And the suggestion that a synthetic smell, in all todays commercials, around the home is pleasant is ludicrous!











If we lived in a bacteria free world, we would not be able to digest our food and if we stop appreciating 'natural' smells we will lose our ability to truly appreciate our humanity...
Reply:I can't find anything on the internet that says bacteria can be transmitted through odour
Reply:I would say yes. You see people wearing those paper face masks in like China, bird flu, hospitals, illness, germs viruses. Airborn its harm would be in its scent.
Reply:Not through odour itself, but respiratory droplets. Bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis infect people via the nostrils or mouth into the lungs this way....
Reply:No, bacteria generate smell it can not be transmitted through smell.





Bacteria grow where there is energy to feed this growth. This makes a shopping board an ideal place for many different types of bacteria, however different bacteria do prefer different types of energy sources.
Reply:I hate those commercials - first off bacteria can be transmitted through scent since when you smell you're breathing in particles of the matter that is in a way slowly dissolving in the air.





The whole 'more bacteria on a chopping board than on a toilet seat' is completely true - and incredibly MISLEADING! Its a piece of disinformation touted by sellers of bleach for their own purposes.





It sounds horrific - why? Because we imagine toilet seats have lots of bacteria - truth is - they do NOT. Bacteria need damp areas to reproduce - a smooth, dry, ceramic surface could not be more unfriendly to microbial life. On the other hand a damp chopping board might have a fair few from meats and other food stuffs - however, thats more bacteria compared to the smooth ceramic surface (forget that its a toilet) which isnt saying very much at all.
Reply:Well - the Hantavirus is transmitted by inhaling an aerosol-like substance that is produced by the droppings / urine of certain rodents.





See the link below.
Reply:Odour is just molecules the same as anything else. bacteria may be bigger but they often go together - think of mould!





Neither has to be harmful, in any quantity (excepting lorry loads of course) but it only takes 1 bug to start a bug farm so the more the un-merrier.





Also seats tend to be smooth and cleaned with a disinfectant rather than pitted and scratched and just wiped clean so they will start from the blocks rather than having salmanella lurking!
Reply:From what i remember it cant the odour given off by an object is of gaseous nature and therefore does not contain bacteria. However bacteria can be air born in the air that the gas inhabits meaning it would be inhaled.
Reply:No odor from bacteria is caused by sulfuric gasses that the bacteria give off. However if the bacteria is a harmful species and is airborne yes it will make you sick but they are usually odorless.
Reply:I think you are asking if bacteria can be transmitted through, the answer is definitely yes. However, the term odour or scent refers to our perception of molecules as they act on our olfactory receptors. Bacteria themselves are not detectable; therefore, no odour.
Reply:bacteria cant travel via the atmosphere,a virus,and eg common cold can even though most is caught through touch more than anything.If bacteria can live in out atmosphere get ready for a human wipe out.......rabis + wter baware?
Reply:Odours are air borne particles. Yes Yes Yes
Reply:Our Olfactory sense organs ,situated in the roof of the nose, are mainly chemical sensors and their stimulation is carried via the olfactory nerve to the brain.





Any odours are in fact specific chemicals that have stimulated the sensors.





These chemical molecules reach our sense organs through the air. Bacteria can also be transmitted through the air and be airborne .





As one can imagine the chemical molecule will travel further than the bacteria due to their difference in masses .





So if one is near enough to the source of the odour one may then breathe in air containing both the chemicals and the odourless bacteria . While further away one can breathe the chemicals without the bacteria. This is easily verifiable.





Odours do not transmit bacteria but both may be independently and concomitantly transmitted by air (airborne).


Do bacteria die when you eat them?

Do bacteria die when you eat them? Like bacteria on food.

Do bacteria die when you eat them?
Fat chance, in other words no they do not.
Reply:Not sure,but they can live inside you.
Reply:it would defeat the purpose of having live active cultures in your yogurt.





=====


Live and active cultures refer to the living organisms Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. Researchers around the world are studying the potential attributes of live and active culture yogurt in preventing gastrointestinal infections, boosting the body's immune system, fighting certain types of cancer and preventing osteoporosis.


http://www.aboutyogurt.com/lacYogurt/fac...
Reply:umm no, in fact your digestive system is an ideal place for bacteria to live and reproduce. It is dark, warm, and wet. Granted, the HCl acid in your stomach might kill some of the bacteria, but not always...in order to insure that you dont eat bacteria you might want to cook all of your food thouroughly and make sure you use clean utinsels and wash your hands when preparing and cooking the food.
Reply:It depends on the type of bacteria. Salivary secretions contain an enzyme called lysozyme which cleaves the peptidoglycan of the bacterial cell wall. Hence gram positive cells are more affected by the action of this enzyme. Also the stomach has a very acidi (low pH) environment that not many bacteria can survive in. One bacteria that is known to survive in the stomach is Helicobacter pylori which is the bacteria correlated with stomach ulcers. So yes, some bacteria are killed when ingested while some are not.
Reply:Some of them died, some of the didn't.


Our saliva contains several hydrolytic enzime that can digest bacteria, but some bacteria form a capsule that make it hard to digest.


Also, acids in your digestion organ can kill several type of bacteria while the others aren't effected cause they're resistant to acids.


Well, be careful when you eat something.
Reply:not all of them of course but most of them cannot live in the gastric acidity . on the other hand other bacteria , like helicobacter pylori,can live even in the high acidity of the stomach
Reply:sum do and sum don't. It depends what bacteria it is. If it is harmful bacteria then it will stay in your body and give you an infection
Reply:no, of they did then you would never get sick!!





they can live through the stomache acids and digestive system!


Is there anything that counts bacteria in water in about half an hour?

I'm looking for a product that will count either aerobic bacteria or coliform bacteria in water, that needs no incubation and that would take about a half an hour. I don't need it to tell me exactly how many bacteria there is, just if water has bacteria or not. I really appreciate your help.

Is there anything that counts bacteria in water in about half an hour?
If you just want to get an idea of the general number of bacteria, the easist thing would be to use a spectrophotometer, since every lab has one. If you have lots of samples, you could use a spec capable of reading multiwell plates.





If you want a better idea of the actual number of bacteria, you can use some sort cell counting device, either automated or manual (hemocytometer anyone).





If you want to be super fancy and spend a lot of money, and get fairly accurate counts of E. coli specifically (in case other bacteria are present) you could add a fluorescent marker specific for E. coli to your sample and run it through a FACS (Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting ) machine.
Reply:See if a Coulter cell counter will work for this counting.





PS what did you think a Coulter counter was, panic girl? I do not know whether your superfluous answer or " thumps down " was more insulting. I will return the favor.
Reply:Use a nephelometer. It will estimate the amount of particles in suspension based on light scatter.
Reply:I don't know what a Coulter counter is, so hopefully I won't get insulted here...but a spectrophotometer is another option. It measures the turbidity (cloudiness) of a sample and gives you a light absorbance reading. Bacteria are generally detected at a 600 nanometer wavelength, so you can set the machine to read at that wavelength. If you use plain water (that you know has no bacteria) as a blank, you will know if there are bacteria in your sample if the absorbance reading increases. There are tables that you can use (online, easy to find) to match up the absorbance reading with an estimated number of bacterial cells. It is pretty much an instantaneous test, depending on how fast the spectrophotomer can read the two samples (blank and experimental). Hope this helps some...

broadleaf

Killing bacteria?

We recently moved to the country and have well water.


The bacteria level is 4 times higher than it should be and


is considered unsafe to drink.


How long do I have to boil it in order to kill the bacteria?

Killing bacteria?
This says get the water to a roiling boil for three minutes:


http://www.kcmo.org/health.nsf/web/boilo...
Reply:This site, http://www.des.state.nh.us/factsheets/ws...


Recommends to boil your water, at a "rolling boil", for two full minutes.





But, this site had comprehensive suggestions and warnings about e-coli bacteria, which you should read. Good Luck!
Reply:3 min boiling
Reply:cleanser, neuritic acid, and domex


About bacteria?

Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter are aerobic (needs air to live) bacteria. What kind of bacteria do not need air to live also can treat the fishing water? Thanks

About bacteria?
What's fishing water? Pond? Aquarium? What are you trying to do? Are you trying to get rid of ammonia and nitrates from a system?





If you study the nitrogen cycle, there are many bacteria involved in transforming one form of nitrogen to another. There are anarobic bacteria (those that require oxygen free conditions) such as nitrogen fixing bacteria that convert nitrogen gas into ammonia (rhizobium in legume roots have this. Also cyanobacteria called anabaena has some specialized cells that are capable of this process) and denitrifying bacteria that converts nitrates and ammonia back into atmospheric nitrogen (N2). These bacteria are found in anoxic soils such as wetlands. There are also probably lots of anaerobic bacteria that convert organic material into ammonia.





I never heard of people adding bacteria to a system. Bacteria will natually get to where environmental conditions allow them to live. Even if you add bacteria, if the conditions are not right, they won't take.
Reply:Anaerobic bacteria are bacteria that do not live or grow in the presence of oxygen.





An anaerobic organism is any organism that does not require oxygen for growth and even dies in its presence.


* Obligate anaerobes will die when exposed to atmospheric levels of oxygen.


* Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen when it is present.


* Aerotolerant organisms can survive in the presence of oxygen, but they are anaerobic because they do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor.





Aeration can be used to treat fishing waters, but be cautious as you could create a giant "fish kill". Read the article below for more information.
Reply:Anerobes


MICROBIOLOGY BACTERIA QUESTION???? What bacteria is this??

What bacteria is this???


Gram negative


Methyl Red: Negative


Voges-Proskauer: Negative


Hydrogen Sulfide Production (Peptone Iron): Negative


Gelatin Hydrolysis: Positive


Glucose Utilization: Positive


OF-Glucose: Oxidizer


Starch Hydrolysis: Negative


Motility: Positive


Special Feature: Green-Blue Color in Culture

MICROBIOLOGY BACTERIA QUESTION???? What bacteria is this??
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The green-blue color is caused by two pigments, fluorescein and pyocyanin, that are produced. It is Gram negative, motile by a polar flagellum, and does utilize glucose, but by respiration rather than by fermentation, which explains the negative results for both the methyl red and the Voges-Proskauer tests. If you grow it on blood agar in pure culture, and sniff the colonies (don't touch them!), you should notice an odor which smells like corn tortillas. I always used that odor to help me in my identification of this pathogen.


A bacteria culture grows in population exponentially. An initial population of 5,000 bacteria are introduced?

and three hours later have grown to 8,000. The culture can support a maximum of 400,000 bacteria. How long will it take the culture to reach this number? Please help me. Please show your work. thank you a lot.

A bacteria culture grows in population exponentially. An initial population of 5,000 bacteria are introduced?
your forumula or f(x) = 5000 + A(x^2), where A is your rate constant.





If f(3) = 8000 = 5000 + A(3^2), then A = 3000/9 = 333.33





Your final formula is f(x) = 5000 + 333.33x^2.





To find out how long it takes to get to 400,000 substitute 400,000 for f(x) to get 400,000 = 5000 = 333.33x^2


= 395,00 = 333.33x^2


= 1185 = x^2


= 34.42 = x





In 34.42 hours, the maximum population of the culture will have been reached.

night jasmine

E.coli bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes. Which of the following best supports why the earth is not taken ov

E.coli bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes. Which of the following best supports why the earth is not taken over by E. coli?





Limiting factors like space and food effect the carrying capacity.





Other bacteria are decomposing the E. coli at a faster rate.





The bacteria die faster than then reproduce.





none of the above

E.coli bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes. Which of the following best supports why the earth is not taken ov
I don' t think the answer is that they die faster than they reproduce. If that were so, there would be NO bacteria.





Actually the death to growth ratio is variable. There must be times when they reproduce faster, and times when they die faster.





I think the answer is limiting factors. When the bacteria reach a new substrate, they grow rapidly (faster than they die) until they have overpopulated the media and begin to slow in growth until they die faster than reproduce.





The moisture, light, and temperature have to be just right for each type of bacteria to grow. We know that the earth varies widely in these three variables, so most of the earth is not suitable for bacterial growth. Places where they can grow are found in isolated patches. When bacteria reach the end of their isololated space, growth must stop until a new space is found.
Reply:i think it is








The bacteria die faster than then reproduce.
Reply:its the limiting factors
Reply:I know from experience with differential equations that it is most likely the limitnig factors. In differential equations intended to accurately model populations, there is often a term included called the carrying capacity. The carrying capacity is the maximum number of "things" that any given environment can support at one point.
Reply:It is DEFINITELY the limiting factors.





Limiting factors include all factors that hold down the population growth: space, food, and buildup of waste products in particular, though viruses, pollution, predators, interspecies competition, and other factors come into play in a natural ecosystem.


Disease and bacteria questions.?

Question 1:





Examples of Pathogens (disease causing bacteria) include all of the following EXEPT:





1. coral


2. bacteria


3. fungi


4. viruses





~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...





Question 2:





Most bacteria reproduce by:





1. conjugation


2. fission


3. fusion


4. sexaul reproduction





~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~


Thank u so much! best answer gets 10 points!!!

Disease and bacteria questions.?
Pathogens are disease-causing organisms (not just bacteria). There are examples of bacteria, fungi and viruses each causing disease.





Bacteria don't do sexual reproduction, nor fusion very often (otherwise the world would be just one big bacterial cell and fusion isn't reproduction anyway). Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another, but is not reproduction.





Good luck!
Reply:Question 1. Answer 1


first of all pathogens are agents that cause disease, not


'disease causing bacteria'. Fungi, bacteria, and viruses all can cause disease





Question 2. Answer 4


It may be asexual or sexual reproduction


Bacteria? i went to the doc today and my last appt they told me they was testing for a certain bacteria?

that sometimes occurs in women. the test was positive so they have to give antibiotics when i go in labor. what kind of bacteria is this and why do i have it? is it harmful to me and will it go away after i have this baby? what is this caused from?

Bacteria? i went to the doc today and my last appt they told me they was testing for a certain bacteria?
It's probably group B strep. I had it and they had to start an IV before I had my son. I know it's harmful to the baby but I don't know alot about it.
Reply:It's called strep b. i was also strep b positive during my second preg and labor. from my understanding, and i may be wrong,is it's not harmful to you b/c your body can fight it off..plus you will be given antibiotics during labor, but it could be potentially life threatening for your baby by causing meningitis (maybe other things). This is why when you go into labor you MUST go directly to the hospital. you want to make sure that you get the antibiotics before the baby comes. otherwise they will give the baby the antibiotic after birth. don't be scared...so many women are strep b positive. apparently it comes and goes.


Important! What kind of bacteria is this? contains a red color?

For a biology experiment we took samples from the bottom of pool. We put the petri dish then in the incubator for 24 hours, and found some bacteria colonies. They looked like white and yellow spots. Then we put the petri dished in the refrigerator and looked again after 4 days. Some collonies had grown onto each othere and most collonies had become wider. However, some collonies had a red color which we didn't expect. Some of these bacteria also had a ring/donut-shape. We would like to know what kind of bacteria it is, because it could make our experiment more accurate. Does anyone know what bacteria this could be? Please answer.

Important! What kind of bacteria is this? contains a red color?
I agree with the first poster. It sounds like Serratia marcescens. Serratia is a very common bacteria found in the environment, especially in soil, and it is known for its vivid red color. If you have red colonies and they were isolated from outdoors, its a pretty good bet that its Serratia.





Serratia is a rod-shaped bacteria, and it prefers damp environments. It can grow from 4-40 degrees celcius, so that makes sense that you found it growing after refrigeration.





I'm not sure about Serratia growing in pools specifically, but I did find that the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) requires pool disinfectants to be effective at killing Serratia, so it is plausible that it would be growing in the muck at the bottom of a swimming pool.





Serratia can also cause respiratory infections like pneumonia, so handle with care.





Good luck!
Reply:I am guessing Serratia marcescens. I know they have a red pigmentation but I am not sure about the donut shape.
Reply:Yupp.. it must be serratia... it have red pigmentation.. but it might be contaminated.. who knows.. that the hardest part when doing microbiology experiment.. proper aceptic techniques... as for the ring and donut shape, you must find it colony characteristic..

frangipni

Bacteria on bottles?

If you have a glass jar or picture.


Filled with water.


Can you get bacteria growth on it?


How soon will it happen?


Will a simple dish wacher remove the bacteria?

Bacteria on bottles?
yes, but if it is just water from the tap I really wouldn't worry about it. In most areas City water is the same quality as bottled water, so by filling up a picture of water you are saving yourself money and the environment because of all of the plastic bottles you would use if you drank bottled water.





If you don't put anything else in the pitcher and it was clean before you put anything in there than you should be fine.





The problem with water is that if it just *sits* it becomes stagnent and thats where the bacteria comes from. If you do see something like mold, wash it out with bleach, then wash it 3-4 times with soap and water to make sure all the bleach and mold is out
Reply:The pitcher itself would not get a significan amount of bacteria on it just by filling it with water. After a couple days you probably shouldnt drink the water though.


And yes, washing with soap or a dishwasher would remove the bacteria.
Reply:"simple" dish waSher? If the heat of the water is over 125 degrees it should kill any bacteria present....


Bacteria help!!?

ahhhhhhhh im so sad.


i tried growing cell phone bacteria and someone said that it needs to be dark and around 90 degress and moist. well i did that and i ended up melting my agar and made a huge mess. ahahaha its funny. but if i dont do somethin im gonna fail my science fair.





any thing??? that will make my bacteria grow?

Bacteria help!!?
Cell phone bacteria?





I'll guess you mean an innoculum from swabs off cell phones.





Grow come plates at 37C, and a few at a lower temperature.





You might also consider growing some in anaerobic or high CO2 conditions.


Bacteria in Sponges?

Sponges get a bad rap...bacteria grows in them...etc..So if you can wash you hands with antibacterial soap and be free of bacteria...wouldn't the same principle apply to squirting soap on the the sponge and sudsing it up? Why the big deal about having a sponge on your sink? I think this country is getting too "germaphobic".

Bacteria in Sponges?
I think you're right about the germaphobic part. I would stress the microwave after using it to clean up after meat.
Reply:the best way to clean a sponge is to get it wet and microwave it till it is giving off steam.


also antibacterial soap is bad, regular soap works just as well and does not develop drug resistant versions that can kill you.
Reply:Yes, we are too germaphobic. However, if you're wiping up anything that might transfer serious illness (raw meat, etc.), better safe than sorry.





As far as hands, it's probably healthier to not use anti-bacterial soap. Our bodies use the small amounts of germs to create antibodies, and regular soap works just fine.
Reply:the reason everyone in this country seems to be getting sicker these days is because they rely on antibacterial hand gels and anti microbial soaps. when you use these products everyday all it does is make the germs become immune and therefore the bacteria gets worse. i dont believe in antimicrobial this and antibacterial that. good old fashion soap and water to wash your hands is fine. as for the sponge... nuke it in the microwave for a few seconds when you are done to dry it out quickly will make it last longer and not smell. and just so you know...my sponge lays in the sink when i'm not using it, and i am just fine.
Reply:I just toss mine about once a month. They can get pretty gross! You know, now a days, we have more helpful knowledge because modern science makes it so and i think we should pay attention especially in this instance.
Reply:Microwave it, this kills 99.9% of all bacteria and germs.
Reply:Let it air dry after every use. I would frequently replace them. Sponges are cheap you can buy for less than 3 dlrs so why not stock them up.
Reply:bacteria in sponges (and mold) is nasty


put in top of dishwasher or throw away...they are cheap


better yet...use paper towels


antibacterial soap...kills (?) germs but does not get the hands clean...just use it on the hands of a 5 yr old straight from the playground...the dirt just gets rubbed around!


drop antibacterial soap on a waxed floor and it will burn off the wax/polish...why would you want to use floor wax stripper on your hands?


no this country is not too germaphobic...better safe than sorry and why take the risk when it is too easy to be clean?


clean is good!
Reply:yes they are... what in the hell did people way back when do about germs? nothing!!! haha! who cares about germs on your sponge? just change em out once in a while!
Reply:I also think you have to "eat a speck of dirt in your life" as my Grandmother would say. We have become way to stressed out over cleaning. I've switched to Norwex, cleaning without chemicals, I'm happier, less stressed, spend less money and have all but eliminated the dirty sponges, who by the way don't want to be clean. The microfiber cloth, note: one cloth, is part silver, an antimicrobial, it doesn't get smelly, cleans everything and keeps me and my environment happy. Don't get me wrong, germs will hurt you and smell up your green space but there is a better way than becoming germaphobic. So toss the sponge, go microfiber, be happy.


Bacteria in Sponges?

Sponges get a bad rap...bacteria grows in them...etc..So if you can wash you hands with antibacterial soap and be free of bacteria...wouldn't the same principle apply to squirting soap on the the sponge and sudsing it up? Why the big deal about having a sponge on your sink? I think this country is getting too "germaphobic".

Bacteria in Sponges?
I think you're right about the germaphobic part. I would stress the microwave after using it to clean up after meat.
Reply:the best way to clean a sponge is to get it wet and microwave it till it is giving off steam.


also antibacterial soap is bad, regular soap works just as well and does not develop drug resistant versions that can kill you.
Reply:Yes, we are too germaphobic. However, if you're wiping up anything that might transfer serious illness (raw meat, etc.), better safe than sorry.





As far as hands, it's probably healthier to not use anti-bacterial soap. Our bodies use the small amounts of germs to create antibodies, and regular soap works just fine.
Reply:the reason everyone in this country seems to be getting sicker these days is because they rely on antibacterial hand gels and anti microbial soaps. when you use these products everyday all it does is make the germs become immune and therefore the bacteria gets worse. i dont believe in antimicrobial this and antibacterial that. good old fashion soap and water to wash your hands is fine. as for the sponge... nuke it in the microwave for a few seconds when you are done to dry it out quickly will make it last longer and not smell. and just so you know...my sponge lays in the sink when i'm not using it, and i am just fine.
Reply:I just toss mine about once a month. They can get pretty gross! You know, now a days, we have more helpful knowledge because modern science makes it so and i think we should pay attention especially in this instance.
Reply:Microwave it, this kills 99.9% of all bacteria and germs.
Reply:Let it air dry after every use. I would frequently replace them. Sponges are cheap you can buy for less than 3 dlrs so why not stock them up.
Reply:bacteria in sponges (and mold) is nasty


put in top of dishwasher or throw away...they are cheap


better yet...use paper towels


antibacterial soap...kills (?) germs but does not get the hands clean...just use it on the hands of a 5 yr old straight from the playground...the dirt just gets rubbed around!


drop antibacterial soap on a waxed floor and it will burn off the wax/polish...why would you want to use floor wax stripper on your hands?


no this country is not too germaphobic...better safe than sorry and why take the risk when it is too easy to be clean?


clean is good!
Reply:yes they are... what in the hell did people way back when do about germs? nothing!!! haha! who cares about germs on your sponge? just change em out once in a while!
Reply:I also think you have to "eat a speck of dirt in your life" as my Grandmother would say. We have become way to stressed out over cleaning. I've switched to Norwex, cleaning without chemicals, I'm happier, less stressed, spend less money and have all but eliminated the dirty sponges, who by the way don't want to be clean. The microfiber cloth, note: one cloth, is part silver, an antimicrobial, it doesn't get smelly, cleans everything and keeps me and my environment happy. Don't get me wrong, germs will hurt you and smell up your green space but there is a better way than becoming germaphobic. So toss the sponge, go microfiber, be happy.

bleeding heart

About all of these bacteria caused diseases.?

I think, and this is just my opinion, that all of these diseases.that are caused by bacteria, such as MRSA get there start from us making soap with more bacteria stopping stuff, or air freshener that "traps" bacteria. That only makes the bacteria evolutionize and get stronger, adapting to the environment they are in is something they do, as well as us. I'm jsut saying, has anyone else thought about that?

About all of these bacteria caused diseases.?
Antibacterials certainly can make for resistant bacteria, but only use or overuse of antibiaotics can make for "superbugs" like MRSA.





It is best to use some plain old soap to wash up. I like Ivory myself.
Reply:yes I agree with you, you have a good point.
Reply:Your absolutely right!





The over use and misuse of antibiotics have helped create "super bugs" as well as the use of "antibacterial" cleaning agents.





When we don't take all of our antibiotics as prescribed, some of the non eradicated bacteria develops a resistance to the antibiotic.





Ordinary good handwashing tecniques with regular soap and water is all we really need.





Also, if people would practice good handwashing after using the bathroom a lot of illnesses could be cut down as well.


Bacteria used in gold mining?

i have heard about some gold mines using bacteria to extract gold from ore. how does it work? and where can i get those bacteria?

Bacteria used in gold mining?
First, you can get the bacteria used for bioleaching gold ores anywhere - they are ubiquous!





The most important player in the bioleaching process is Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. It is a chemoautotrophic acidophile, meaning that it obtains its energy from inorganic sources and fixes its own carbon while growing in an acidic medium. Its unique ability to oxidise ferrous to ferric, and sulphur and reduced sulphur compounds to sulphuric acid, leads to leaching of metals from their oxide and sulphide ores. http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Aug2004/p...
Reply:The bug doesn't extract gold but it oxidises minerals containing the gold and so dissolves them. So the gold particles bound up in the minerals are released. The bug is called


Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
Reply:Additional info: It's used as a secondary process though, 'cause it takes a veeery long time to extract appreciable amounts of gold. It's like waiting for a hunk of iron to rust and reveal the small chip of gold inside.


Bacteria questions? anyone know?

1. A bacterium that lives in the deep ocean vents where hot, mineral rich water and lava emerge from the ocean floor would be classified into what kingdom of bacteria?





2. Explain how endospores have allowed some bacteria, like tetanus, to be a successful species.





3. Compare and contrast binary fission and conjugation; list at least two ways they are alike and two ways they are different.

Bacteria questions? anyone know?
1) Archaebacteria


2) When conditions in their environment worsen, the bacteria can create endospores so that they can become dormant and become reactivated when conditions in the surrounding environment improve. Endospores are resistant to most agents which would normally kill the vegetative cells they formed from.


3) Binary Fission does not involve any genetic recombination unlike conjugation. Both involve prokaryotes. Both are asexual forms of reproduction. Binary fission creates identical offspring whereas conjugation results in different offspring. Binary fission requires only 1 bacteria, conjugation requires 2 bacteria to come together temporarily.
Reply:Yup - I sure do! I bet the answers were given in class, too.
Reply:kingdom archaebacteria. example is thermoacidophiles. i don't know the second one. and all i know about bacterial conjugation is that it is the process by which two living bacteria bind together and 1 bacteria transfer if genetic info to the other. binary fission i think...is between to prokaryotic cells. not sure...you got a bio book??? haha maybe you should look it up. good luck with your homework!!
Reply:Bacteria form endospores to protect themselves from harsh environment. These endospores are very hardy dormant structures that protect genetic material until such a time when favorable conditions allow vegetative cells to emerge. Clostridium bacteria such as C.tetani are an example of spore-forming bacteria. Spores make tetanus bacterium successful by making it hard to kill. Compare this to a bacterium that dies shortly after exposure to dessicating conditions.
Reply:1. the bacteria would be a thermopile archaebacteria.


2.The primary function of most endospores is to ensure the survival of a bacterium through periods of environmental stress. Therefore this has allowed some bacteria, like tetanus, to be a successful specie. When environmental conditions worsen, they become dormant.


3. Similarity: -both only occur in single celled organism


- both are a form of asexual reproduction


Differences: - binary fission results in a exponential growth rate in bacteria population, conjugation is does not


- binary fission does not change genetic information, conjugation transferrs genetic info between cells.


- binary fission requires one organism, conjugation requires two.
Reply:they are thermophiles


endospores enable the bacterium to keep on existing, its their means of survival, i.e. reproduction


your third question sounds like you want someone to do your homework for you, now thats cheating
Reply:1. Archeabacteria ( extremophiles)


2. they allow the bacteria to survive harsh conditions ( either heat, dessication etc) for MANY years in the soil....I remember hearing that bacteria like Clostridium endospores can survive boiling, and canning in lack of oxygen for tens of years...and then when conditions are favourable they are able to "grow"and live on again.


3. binary fission is asexual reproduction, so the daughter cells are ideantical to the parent ( or practically identical)...its where a cell divides into 2, while conjugation is sexual reproduction with 2 bacteria joined by a conjugation tube that shares DNA and combines it...this allows greater genetic variation in the offspring ( greater variability) while binary fission has less genetic vairation but its quicker, no need for another bactierium etc.
Reply:You are so cheating in your biology homework if I am correct. Are you taking an FLVS course because I am and I just had to answer those exact questions a couple days ago.?


How was Bacteria created ? like the first bacteria ever how was it created ?

how was Bacteria created ? like the first bacteria ever how was it created ? please don't respond that they have always been here becuase they must have been created somehow. AND PLEASE DON'T SAY THAT GOD CREATE THEM!

How was Bacteria created ? like the first bacteria ever how was it created ?
Single-celled organisms, like bacteria, are believed to be the first organisms to evolve on earth. The origin of life is one of the remaining highly theoretical/controversial aspects of evolutionary biology. Basically, self-assembling organic molecules came together inside a membrane, forming a "protocell". Over a long long period of time, living cells evolved from these non-living protocells.





If you want a more technical explanation, the key steps that are thought to have occurred are:





1. Organic molecules, like amino acids and carbohydrates are formed. This has been shown to occur at random, as in the Miller-Urey experiments.


2. Phospholipids, which make up the membranes surrounding bacteria, can self assemble in to lipid bilayer membranes in a water solution.


3. The earliest enzymes probably were self-replicating ribozymes, which have the ability to produce mirror images of themselves. (RNA World Hypothesis)


4. Ribozymes are outcompeted by self-replicating proteins, and eventually other catalytic proteins, which are enzymes.


5. Some assemblage of these RNA molecules, ribozymes, and proteins are collected inside a phospholipid membrane. As time passes, this assemblage evolves to be able to reproduce itself, carry out metabolic functions, and be alive. This would be considered the first living organism.
Reply:Cosmic dust. Seriously.
Reply:Big Boom Theory
Reply:The answer to this question is unknown at this time. We know approximately when the first living cells appeared on earth, but how they went from being protocells to being actual, living bacteria is still a mystery. If you are asking this question as part of a homework assignment, your teacher should accept the answer that they arose from protocells about 3.8 billion years ago, and that protocells are the result of the ability of some organic molecules to self-assemble under the conditions that existed on the early earth.
Reply:Well Tom Cruise says.....;"Santa Claus and the Easter bunny were fighting over what holiday was better and so the tooth fairy butted in to try and mediate. Mother nature sat in her usual spot...(under the tree of life talking to the snake and offering that Adam dude an apple) she decided she'd give Santa Claus and the Easter Bunny something in common so they'd get a long better therefore she created the disease Chlamydia which she gave to the 13 virgins. About a week later Santa Clause and The Easter bunny were arguing again when the Easter bunny noticed Santa Clause scratching his junk. The E.B. realised he had been having the same problem and started to discuss this dripping issue with S.C. After this they have been friends for life and that's when Jesus Christ came along. S.C. got one of the 13 "Virgins" pregnant so hence the Christ child was born in December (they had agreed on holiday months by now)...then he told the E.B. since he was his best friend he'd give his only son on his holiday to do whatever he wanted to with him.....now you see back then this was before Rabits were turned into herbavors (mother nature played a sick joke, it's a long story don't ask) so Easter came along and Mr. E.B. got hungry so he rotisary style BBQ'ed S.C.'s kid..........any other questions?





Ok, and now for us Educated people! Bacteria is a natural creation in our relm. No one knows where they were created from or it would be all over Oprah.
Reply:Read the Endosymbiotic theory





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiot...
Reply:The first bacteria was created in Wynona, Minnesota, by accident, in 1867 by Howard Strep, a barrel maker. He was trying to invent a new, stronger cork for his ale kegs, and started messing around with whatever he found in his workshop. In his lunch pail were some Gatorade, some sugar, a couple protein bars. He kept his lunch box outside (you know how cold it is there!), and got so busy he forgot the time. A storm came through, and BANG!!!!!, lightning hit his lunch box. He was really ticked because he was hungry. But, the stuff inside was now nasty, looking like some kind of primordial soup! He thought about just throwing it away, but decided to give it a taste. He added a little salt and spooned up a couple bites. Shortly after, he started getting cramps and having horrible diarrhea. That's when it was discovered that he had created E.coli, the first bacteria.





Once he remembered how to grow it, he sold his barrel business, and opened a joke shop, selling things like itching powder, fake poop, gum which made your teeth turn black. But his best seller was his Eau de Colon (containing E. coli), which, when sprayed on someone's face and inhaled, quickly induced the trots, or as he preferred, the "squirts".





After several law suits, Mr. Strep sold the joke shop to his friends, Sam %26amp; Ella, who both had sh**ty personalities, but who loved to go to church picnics, making their famous Room Temperature Potato Salad. It sure got everyone moving!





So, that's the story of how, when and where the first bacteria was created. I hope this helps. Oh, by the way, the History Channel did a biography of Mr. Strep, hosted by Karen Carpenter, but it was rather thin in content.

street fighting

NEED HELP!! Bacteria question!????

k so we collevted samples of bacteria around our school for our lab..a nd one of the question is that:


1) Suppose after incubation a quadrant of the nutrient agar showed no evidence of bacterial growth. Can one conclude that the sampled environment is sterile? Explain 2 possible reasons for no growth in the quadrant?





2) Although we do not know if the bacteria you collected are harmless or harmful, reflect on your daily life inthe school. What, if anything, you will do differently after seeing the growth of bacteria you obtained from your sample locations? Why?





kk thnks

NEED HELP!! Bacteria question!????
no you cannot assume that the sampled environment is stable. One reason there could have been no bacterial growth is because the culture that you cultivated the bacteria on didn't have the necessary nutrients to support the bacterial life. Another reason is that maybe the sample of bacteria taken wasn't significant enough to show visible growth (this explination i'm not sure of).....for number two....it just seems like an opinion question....will you start using paper towels to touch doorknobs...carry around antibacterial gel just in case the bacteria you come in contact with is harmful....just what preventative measures you plan on taking
Reply:neat freak


Mutualism of bacteria and legumes?

What benifit is derived from the mutualism of bacteria and legumes??

Mutualism of bacteria and legumes?
Leguminous plants have their association with bacteria to support their nitrogen requirement...


Symbiotic bacteria like Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas etc...are associated with those plants...


these bacteria have nitrogenase enzyme and plants have leg-haemoglobin....these combine to ensure nitrogen requirement for plants...


What is bacteria made of and how is it used in the environment?

The bacteria that is in our bodies I do understand some help us and some can hurt us please explain to me.

What is bacteria made of and how is it used in the environment?
Bacteria are prokaryotic, which means no membrane bound organelles. They are unicellular organisms that are comprised of a cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane like all cells plus a number of other bacteria specific structures like a peptidoglycan cell wall. They have a circular genome and may also contain extrachromosomal DNA in the form of circular structures called plasmids. Bacteria are everywhere. In (and on) the human body, they serve to help us produce vital nutrients from food such as Vitamin K and help to keep potentially pathogenic bacteria in check so that we do not develop infections among others. The majority of bacteria do not harm us. However, some, especially Gram-negative bacteria, possess endotoxins in their outer membrane. When your body destroys these bacteria through lysis, these toxins are released thus triggering an immune response, which in some cases, may cause your immune system to attack your own cells destroying them (necrotizing fasciitis is one case where this occurs). Additionally, some bacteria can colonize tissues and use your body as a food source or a place to replicate. An interesting example is Listeria monocytogenes, which invades cells, grows and replicates using nutrients present in the cell, and hijacks the cell's actin machinery to propel itself around the cell eventually breaking out and invading other cells. This process eventually leads to cell death.


How does bacteria move if it has an axial filament?

What does bacteria need in order to furrow onto human skin, does it need flagella or does it need axial filaments?

How does bacteria move if it has an axial filament?
Unfortunately, I don't have the answer to this question (sorry!)





But I wanted to follow up on one of my other responses to your question "Is there a difference in the composition or function of the pariplasmic space of Gram + and G -?" and your comment: "Now I know where the Lysosomes live in G bacteria."





Bacteria do not have lysosomes. Lysosomes are specialized organelles that are only present in eukaryotes (lysosomes have membranes, and except for RARE exceptions, prokaryotes do not have internal membrane).





I think what you meant were 'degradative enzymes'. Although lysosome contain specific degradative enzymes, they do not contain all the degradative enzymes. Prokaryotes also have degradative enzymes, just not the kind found in lysosomes.

grappling

Bacteria infection?

well im 16 weeks pregnant, and i had a pap smear last week well yesterday my nurse called me for my results and told me i had a bacteria infection, she said that they wouldn't be able to prescribe me anything till i am 20 weeks, so she told me for the mean time i have to douch with hydrogen peroxide to clean out the bacteria once a week till my next doctor's appointment at the end of this month, i just want to know has anybody ever heard of that, and if u have is it safe? this is my first pregnancy i just dont want anything to happen to my baby.

Bacteria infection?
Get a second opinion.
Reply:It sounds like you probably have bacterial vaginosis, a very common infection that pregnant women get. I had it early on in my 1st pregnancy, and later in my 2nd. It's standard not to treat it until after 20 weeks, as a safety measure to avoid the antibiotics while possible during the fetus' development. The infection itself is basically harmless to you and the baby this early in pregnancy. Late in the third trimester, it is sometimes blamed for premature labor.


Symptoms are usually an odor and heavy discharge. I've never heard of using a hydrogen peroxide douche, and question the necessity of this, but if you are unsure, get a second opinion. Personally, during my 1st pregnancy, I did no treatments until the doctor prescribed the medicine, and I was fine.





Either way, be comforted in knowing that this infection will not cause any harm to your developing baby.
Reply:Although a douche won't reach your baby, I find the nurse's instruction of using a hydrogen peroxide douche odd. I would have expect her to recommend a betadine douche.





I would called your doctor's office and tell them you would like to speak with the doctor. You do have a right to speak directly to the doctor so if the office insists one of the nurses can answer your question simply say "I understand you are very knowledgeable, but I want to discuss this issue with the doctor. Please give him/her my message". If the doctor won't call you then I would reconsider whether s/he is the right doctor for you.
Reply:the nurse will have probably checked the instructions over with the doctor first,but for total peace of mind ring the doctor's surgery and ask to speak to a practitioner.I'm a nurse and I've not heard of hydrogen peroxide being used as a douche(that's not to say it doesn't work tho).i use it in work to kill bacteria in open wounds but i would have reservations about using it internally especially if i was pregnant.if it was my prescription,i would still have to challenge it before i was 100% happy to proceed.good luck with the baby and i hope i've helped you in some way.
Reply:ive never heard of waiting til your 20 weeks


bacterial infections are very very common in pregnant women. I had them alot with my first child and they put me on a antibiotic instantly. they knew when they did my exam I had it, without sending anyhing to a lab. your not even supposed to douch while pregnant(actually gyn's frown apon it most of the time)


I cant believe you were told this. I would be switching doctors if I were in your shoes!


Bacteria question?

Hi guys what bacteria consumes other bacteria...do you guys know the answer to this??

Bacteria question?
Yes, they are predatory bacteria. These bacteria are not well characterized. The most well known obligate predatory bacteria group is the Bdellovibrio-and-like organisms (BALO) but are not the only type. Other types include, Myxococalles Lysobacter, Micavibrio, and Vampirococcus (my personal favorite).





BALO are small, highly motile gram negative bacteria that obligatory prey on other gram negative bacteria. Their typical life cycle includes the free swimming cell invading the periplasm of the prey, growth, replication, and then differentiate to progeny cells that lyse the host cell.
Reply:Most bacteria I know about don't actually "consume" things the way white blood cells or amoebas do. Bacterial cell walls are too rigid to stretch around another cell. Bacteria feed by secreting digestive enzymes which break down food. Once broken down, the bacteria then re-absorb the food molecules. For bacteria to feed on other bacteria, the preditory species would release a substance which broke down the walls of the prey species. This is how fungi feed on bacteria. Penicillin has a special enzyme which breaks down the cell walls of bacteria.
Reply:is it bacteriophage
Reply:i dont think that any bacteria feeds on other bacteria.





btw, bacteriophage is a virus, not a bacterium!!!


Bacteria colonies?

There are always those rare occasions when a tank will suddenly crash and the biological filtration will fail. Outside of surface area, and a fuel source, what are the necessary conditions/parameters for your nitrifying bacteria to grow and thrive in? What outside of medications could cause a massive death in your bacteria colony?

Bacteria colonies?
In addition to the fuel source and a surface on which to grow, the bacteria require O2 and a proper temperature range. Any temperature which will support fish will also support the bacteria of course, so that's never a problem in aquariums. Adequate O2 is also not a problem in an aquarium as enough does diffuse through the surface even without filtration or water motion. There may be a few micro-nutrients required as well, but I have never seen any studies on that and never seen water what wouldn't support the bacteria, so it's doubtful you could ever have a problem in that regard.





Lots of things can be bactericidal in proper levels. Too much salt (or in the case of marine tanks not enough), copper, lead, mercury, chlorine (basically any metal) as well as of course most any antibiotics as you well know. Those would be the most common causes in aquariums, but many other compounds can also be to blame.





MM
Reply:Chlorine will kill bacteria. An oxygen starved tank can kill it too. The only legitimate excuse for a crash is a power outage, in which case water will stop moving through the filter and oxygen and ammonia would stop reaching it. Any other reasons I could think of are completely avoidable.





The bacteria Grows best in warmer water then cooler.





In case of a crash, one is best to go to the fish store and get filter media or gravel from a mature tank, bring this home in a bag of aquarium water, and then add it to their own filter - adding this fresh, living bacteria can make all the difference (and works a million times better then the bottled stuff).
Reply:i personaly dont got a clue ill inform u after i do research on it
Reply:This question can have many answers. The crash that I have experienced came from a few sources. One can be if the water gets to cold, this has a tendency to weaken the bacteria and make it almost dormant.The second is if your filter stops running for a few days, this also can cause the bacteria to become dormant and even start to die off. The obvious is rinsing your filter / media with tap water, this will kill the bacteria immediately. Changing sponge/pads and media at the same time thus having no bacteria left to purge into the tank. I could go on and on but I think you get the idea.
Reply:Some ways that bacteria will crash is by over dosing medications and end up killing the bacteria instead of helping. Also chloring will kill bacteria.
Reply:Another is where your local water supplier cleans out his system, looking to destroy crustaceans and microbiology that builds up in the piping from the filter beds, the chemicals used are small enough to pass through there filtration systems sterilizing the whole lot of course, if it goes through there filtration then even using R.O. (reverse osmosis) doesn't stop it this can wipe out all the cultures in your system. (not only the filter).





It happened twice to me in 2 separate years during May, the coincidence of the date sent me scurrying to the local water facility, who while saying it wasn't harmful to fish, seemed clearly aware what it could do to an enclosed system, there explanation being that the water should flush through the system and then into, in there case, a nearby river. However, for whatever reason (they wouldn't admit) it ended up in the water source going into homes.





AJ


Bacteria used in biotechnology????

Can anyone answer this question, My biology book has over 500 pages, and it has about 30 pages alone on bacteria, but this answer is nowhere to be found.





What are two components of bacteria that are often used in biotechnology?





Any insight would be GREAT!!

Bacteria used in biotechnology????
DNA (plasmid, phage, BAC): for DNA cloning, protein overexpression


Protein (enzyme systems): in vitro translation, in vitro transcription, DNA manipulation
Reply:Freaky your question is not specific one but i'm trying my best. On the basis of overall biotechnology the two chief components of bacteria commonly used are 1their enzymes such as zymases and many other which gives specific products. 2 another one is their toxin those we called them as antibodies. Are used very frequently.


But when we are concerning in genetics their dna and various genetical process which are simplest in prokaryotes are of our great interest. And also there are many other enzymes called restriction nucleases are of great importance as there cut the dna at specific site and most of them are equally specific in eukaryotes like humans too.
Reply:Biological technology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of biotechnology:





"Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."





This definition is at odds with common usage in the United States, where "biotechnology" generally refers to recombinant DNA based and/or tissue culture based processes that have only been commercialized since the 1970s. Thus, in common usage, modifying plants or animals by breeding, which has been practiced for thousands of years, would not be considered biotechnology. This distinction emphasizes that modern, recombinant DNA based biotechnology is not just a more powerful version of existing technology, but represents something new and different; for instance, theoretically, recombinant DNA biotechnology allows us to take virtually any gene and express it in any organism; we can take the genes that make crimson color in plants and put them into guinea pigs to make pink pets, or, we can take the genes that help arctic fish survive the freezing temperatures and put them into food to increase the amount of time it can grow before it freezes. This sort of gene transfer was virtually impossible with historical processes.





There has been a great deal of talk - and money - poured into biotechnology with the hope that miracle drugs will appear. While there do seem to be a small number of efficacious drugs, in general the biotech revolution has not happened in the pharmaceutical sector. However, recent progress with monoclonal antibody based drugs, such as Genentech's Avastin (tm) suggest that biotech may finally have found a role in pharmaceutical sales.





Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines like chemical engineering, information technology, and robotics.





Biotechnology can also be defined as the manipulation of organisms to do practical things and to provide useful products.





One aspect of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). For another example, naturally present bacteria are utilized by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and produce biological weapons.





There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living organisms. Examples are DNA microarrays used in genetics and radioactive tracers used in medicine.





Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.





White biotechnology also known as grey biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.





Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.





Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The field is also often referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.





The term blue biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.


Contents


[hide]





* 1 The science %26amp; policy issues of modern biotechnology


o 1.1 A more widely accepted definition


o 1.2 Important terminology


o 1.3 The role of information technology in the development of modern biotechnology


o 1.4 Importance of modern biotechnology


* 2 Applications in Medicine


o 2.1 Pharmacogenomics


o 2.2 Drug Production


o 2.3 Genetic Testing


o 2.4 Gene Therapy


+ 2.4.1 Obstacles to becoming a practical method


o 2.5 The Human Genome Project


o 2.6 Cloning


o 2.7 Concerns regarding the use of modern biotechnology techniques in medicine


* 3 Applications in Agriculture


* 4 Biotechnology medical products


* 5 Biological engineering


* 6 History


* 7 Global biotechnology trends


* 8 Biotechnology firms


* 9 Key researchers, visionaries and personalities in biotechnology sector


* 10 See also


* 11 References


* 12 Further reading


* 13 External links





[edit] The science %26amp; policy issues of modern biotechnology





In its broadest sense, “biotechnology” refers to “any technique that uses living organisms, or parts of such organisms, to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific use.[2]”





Figure 1 shows how biotechnology has evolved through the years. On one end of the development pole are techniques of traditional biotechnology like microbial fermentation, used as early as 10,000 years ago in fermenting beer, wine and dairy products. At the other end of the development pole are the continuously evolving techniques of modern biotechnology, such as genetic engineering. Using genetic engineering techniques, the genetic makeup of an organism may be modified by inactivating or altering some of its genes and introducing other natural or artificial genes, usually from another organism.





Figure 1:The Gradient of Biotechnology





[edit] A more widely accepted definition





The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety defines modern biotechnology as referring to any process that involves the application of (i) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or (ii) fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination of barriers and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection.[3]





Although the Protocol is not yet in force (because less than the required 50 States have either ratified or acceded to it), the Protocol’s definition of modern biotechnology has gained currency in international circles.





However, while there may be an emerging international consensus on the above definition, strictly speaking it is a definition that is applicable only when one uses the term “modern biotechnology” for purposes of interpreting or implementing the Protocol.





[edit] Important terminology





There are four important technical terms to know when dealing with biotechnology: genetics, genes, genome and genetically modified organisms.





Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the principles of heredity and variation in all living things. It is the study of why and how parents pass on some of their distinguishing features to their offspring. Its focus is on genes and their functions.





The gene is the basic unit of heredity and the ultimate arbiter of what we are. It carries instructions that allow cells to produce specific proteins. (It should be noted, however, that only certain genes are active at any given moment and environment.[4])





A gene is a part of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.[5] DNA, which is present in all living cells, contains information coding for cellular structure, organization and function.[6] It is made up of two strands twisted around each other in a helical staircase.[7]





Figure 2: DNA, Genes and Proteins





Each cell in an organism has one or two sets of the basic DNA complement, called a genome. The genome is itself made up of one or more extremely long linear array of molecules of DNA that are called chromosomes. Genes, as explained earlier, are the functional regions of the DNA. They are the active segments of the chromosomes.[8] Figure 3 shows how the genome, chromosomes, DNA and genes relate to each other:





Figure 3. Successive Enlargements of an Organism with Focus on Genetic Material





Source:Griffiths, A.J.F., J.H. Miller, D.T. Suzuki, R.C. Lewontin, and W.M. Gelbart. 1996. An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.





In modern biotechnology,[9] the genome of an organism is altered by exposing cells to fragments of “foreign” DNA carrying the desirable genes, often from another species. This DNA is taken in and inserts itself into one or more of the recipient’s chromosomes at a location where it is inherited like any other part of the genome. The cells so modified are called transgenic cells. It is from transgenic cells that a GMO can be produced. All of the GMO’s cells contain the additional foreign DNA.[10]





There is no universal definition for genetically modified organism (also called “transgenic organism” or “living modified organism”). However, it is generally understood to be a plant, animal or microorganism that contains genes that have been altered or transferred from another species or from the same species by means of genetic engineering techniques.





[edit] The role of information technology in the development of modern biotechnology





Knowledge of biology has rapidly grown over the years, requiring the development of powerful tools to handle all of it. Information technology, through the field of bioinformatics,[11] makes possible the rapid organization and analysis of biological data. Bioinformatics merges biology, computer science, and information technology to manage and analyze genomic data, with the ultimate goal of understanding and modeling living systems.[12]





[edit] Importance of modern biotechnology





There are many potential benefits that modern biotechnology offers humankind in general. The European Commission (2002)[13] [hereafter “European Commission”] refers to modern biotechnology as the “next wave of the knowledge-based economy” after information technology, and the “most promising of the frontier technologies.”[14] It has identified applications in the following areas:





1. Health care. Biotechnology can be used to arrive at novel and innovative approaches to meet the needs of ageing populations and poor countries.





2. Crop production. Biotechnology can deliver improved food quality and environmental benefits through agronomically improved crops. It may be used to produce foods with enhanced qualities like higher nutritional benefits.





3. Non-food uses of crops. Biotechnology can also improve non-food uses of crops as sources of industrial feedstock or new materials such as biodegradable plastics. For example, canola is now being used to produce high-value industrial oil. Under the appropriate economic and fiscal conditions, biomass can contribute to alternative energy with both liquid and solid biofuels (e.g., biodiesel and bioethanol) and processes such as bio-desulphurisation.[15]





4. Environmental uses. New ways of protecting and improving the environment are possible with biotechnology, including bioremediation of polluted air, soil, water and waste, as well as the development of cleaner industrial products and processes like biocatalysis.[16]





[edit] Applications in Medicine





In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in:





* pharmacogenomics;


* drug production;


* genetic testing; and


* gene therapy.





[edit] Pharmacogenomics





Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is therefore the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.[17]





Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:[18]





1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.





2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.





3.Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.





4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.





[edit] Drug Production





Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing drugs more easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to combat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech joined a gene for insulin and a plasmid vector and put the resulting gene into a bacterium called Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from sheep and pigs. It was very expensive and often elicited unwanted allergic responses. The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of human insulin at low cost.[19]





Since then modern biotechnology has made it possible to produce more easily and cheaply the human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.[20] Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.[21]





[edit] Genetic Testing





Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.





There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to a normal version of the gene.





Genetic testing can be used to:





* Diagnose a disease.


* Confirm a diagnosis.


* Provide prognostic information about the course of a disease.


* Confirm the existence of a disease in individuals.





With varying degrees of accuracy, predict the risk of future disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.





Genetic testing is now used for:





* determining sex


* carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest


* prenatal diagnostic screening


* newborn screening


* presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders


* presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers


* confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals


* forensic/identity testing





Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.[22]





[edit] Gene Therapy





Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or germ (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.





There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:





1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to the virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.





2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.





Currently, the use of gene therapy is limited. Somatic gene therapy is primarily at the experimental stage. Germline therapy is the subject of much discussion but it is not being actively investigated in larger animals and human beings.





As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.





[edit] Obstacles to becoming a practical method





Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease.[23] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:





1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues.





2. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.





3. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease.





4. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.





[edit] The Human Genome Project





The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.





The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.





The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation have accelerated the expected completion date to 2003. In June 2000, scientists announced the generation of a working draft sequence of the entire human genome. The draft provides a road map to an estimated 90% of genes on every human chromosome. Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.[24]





[edit] Cloning





Human cloning is one of the techniques of modern biotechnology. It involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.





There are two types of cloning:





1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.





2. Therapeutic cloning.[25] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.[26]





The major differences between these two types are shown Table 1.





In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings.[27] This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.





[edit] Concerns regarding the use of modern biotechnology techniques in medicine





Several issues have been raised regarding the use of modern biotechnology in the medical sector. Many of these issues are similar to those facing any new technology that is viewed as powerful and far-reaching. Some of these issues are:[28]





1. Absence of cure. There is still a lack of effective treatment or preventive measures for many diseases and conditions now being diagnosed or predicted using gene tests. Thus, revealing information about risk of a future disease that has no existing cure presents an ethical dilemma for medical practitioners.





2. Ownership and control of genetic information. Who will own and control genetic information, or information about genes, gene products, or inherited characteristics derived from an individual or a group of people like indigenous communities? At the macro level, there is a possibility of a genetic divide, with developing countries that do not have access to medical applications of biotechnology being deprived of benefits accruing from products derived from genes obtained from their own people. Moreover, genetic information can pose a risk for minority population groups as it can lead to group stigmatization.





At the individual level, the absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of personal genetic information. This raises questions like, is genetic privacy different from medical privacy?[29]





3. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics.[30]





4. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information. For instance, how should the public be prepared to make informed choices based on the results of genetic tests? How will genetic tests be evaluated and regulated for accuracy, reliability, and usefulness?





5. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.





6. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease. Do genes influence human behavior? If so, does genetic testing mean controlling human behavior? What is considered acceptable diversity? What is normal and what is a disability or disorder, and who decides these matters? Are disabilities diseases that need to be cured or prevented? Where should the line between medical treatment and enhancement be drawn? Who will have access to gene therapy?





[edit] Applications in Agriculture





There are many applications of biotechnology in agriculture.





One is improved yield from crops. Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield.30 However, while increase in crop yield is the most obvious application of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield.31 There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.





Another is the reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses. Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are the two most important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from thale cress, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells, the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments.32





Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.33





Increased nutritional qualities of food crops. Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet.34 A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Goldenrice™(discussed below).





Improved taste, texture or appearance of food. Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This improves the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage.





The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening.35 Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.36





Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals. Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).





Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of cost-effective herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence — that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosphate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.37





From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 62.6 million hectares planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and stacked genes for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.38





Production of novel substances in crop plants. Modern biotechnology is increasingly being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed is at present used mainly for margarine and other food oils, but it can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.39 Banana trees and tomato plants have also been genetically engineered to produce vaccines in their fruit. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.40





[edit] Biotechnology medical products





Traditional pharmaceutical drugs are small chemicals molecules that treat the symptoms of a disease or illness - one molecule directed at a single target. Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady; it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that are not accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.





Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but large molecules are created by living cells: for example, - bacteria cells, yeast cell,animal cells.





Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also widely used to manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.





Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat diabetes, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, cardiovascular as well as molecular diagnostic devices than can be used to define the patient population. Herceptin, is the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.





[edit] Biological engineering





Main article: Bioengineering





Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is the branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies. It includes different kinds of bioengineering such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-process engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. Because of the novelty field, the definition of a bioengineer is ill defined. However, we can assume that it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional process engineering principles.





Bioengineers are often employed to scale up a bio processes from the laboratory scale to the manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management, economic and legal issues. Since patents and regulation (e.g. FDA regulation in the U.S.) are very important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers often have knowledge related to these specialities.





The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs in bioengineering and biotechnology (as indepedent programs or specialty programs within more established engineering fields).





[edit] History





Main article: History of Biotechnology





Early cultures also understood the importance of using natural processes to breakdown waste products into inert forms. From very early nomadic tribes to pre-urban civilizations it was common knowledge that given enough time organic waste products would be absorbed and eventually integrated into the soil. It was not until the advent of modern microbiology and chemistry that this process was fully understood and attributed to bacteria.





The most practical use of biotechnology, which is still present today, is the cultivations of plants to produce food suitable to humans. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology farmers were able to select the best suited and high-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism byproducts were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments, breeding them with other plants, and by using artificial selection. In modern times some plants are genetically modified to produce specific nutritional values or to be economical.





The process of Ethanol fermentation was also one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Iran developed the process of brewing which consisted of combining malted grains with specific yeasts to produce alcoholic beverages. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.





Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have lead to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.





A more recent field in biotechnology is that of genetic engineering. Genetic Engineering has opened up many new fields of biotechnology and allowed the modification of plants, animals, and even humans on a molecular level.





[edit] Global biotechnology trends


This article or section does not cite its references or sources.


Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)


Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any time. This article has been tagged since November 2006.





According to Burrill and Company, an industry investment bank, over $350 billion has been invested in biotech so far, and global revenues have risen from $23 billion in 2000 to more than $50 billion in 2005. The greatest growth has been in Latin America but all regions of the world have shown strong growth trends.





There has been little innovation in the traditional pharmaceutical industry over the past decade and biopharmaceuticals are now achieving the fastest rates of growth against this background, particularly in breast cancer treatment. Biopharmaceuticals typically treat sub-sets of the total population with a disease whereas traditional drugs are developed to treat the population as a whole. However, one of the great difficulties with traditional drugs are the toxic side effects the incidence of which can be unpredictable in individual patients.





Many have expressed concerns about the safety, environmental impacts, and social impacts of biotechnology. A book by Michael Mehta (2005) entitled Biotechnology Unglued: Science, Society and Social Cohesion (UBC Press) examines the two faces of biotechnology, and provides a series of case-studies on how different applications in biotechnology affect the social cohesiveness of different kinds of communities.





[edit] Biotechnology firms





Main article: List of biotechnology companies





There are around 4,000 biotechnology firms across the globe. Almost 50% of these are in the European Union; 30% in the US and the balance in Asia. The leading biotechnology firms are Amgen, Genentech and Serono.





[edit] Key researchers, visionaries and personalities in biotechnology sector





* Finland : Leena Palotie


* Iceland : Kari Stefansson


* Ireland : Timothy O'Brien, Dermot P Kelleher, Pearse Lyons


* U.S. : Kate Jacques, David Botstein, Craig Venter, Sydney Brenner, Eric Lander, Leroy Hood, Robert Langer, Henry I. Miller, Roger Beachy, William Rutter, George Rathmann, Herbert Boyer, Michael West, Thomas Okarma, James D. Watson


* Europe : Paul D Kemp, Paul Nurse, Jacques Monod, Francis Crick


* India : Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (Biocon)


* Canada : Michael D Tyers, Frederick Banting, Lap-Chee Tsui, Tak Wah Mak, Lorne Babiuk





[edit] See also





* List of biotechnology articles


* Pharmaceutical company


* Biotechnology industrial park


* Compare with Biomimetics


* Agricultural Biotech





[edit] References





1. ^ "The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2. Use of Terms)." United Nations. 1992. Retrieved on September 20, 2006.


2. ^ J.J. Doyle and G.J. Persley, eds., Enabling the Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principles and Practices (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1996), 5. [hereafter “Doyle”]


3. ^ Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, finalized and opened for signature on January 29, 2000; available from http://www.biodiv.org; accessed 15 July 2002. [hereafter “Cartagena Protocol”]


4. ^ National Cancer Institute, “Cancer Facts”, National Cancer Institute Online; available from http://cis.nci.nih.gov; Internet; accessed 19 August 2002.


5. ^ A.J.F. Griffiths, J.H. Miller, D.T. Suzuki, R.C. Lewontin, and W.M. Gelbart, An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1996), 2. [hereafter “Griffiths”]


6. ^ The Royal Society, “Genetically Modified Plants for Food Use and Human Health – An Update, Policy Document 4/02, The Royal Society Online; available from http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk; accessed 21 July 2002. [hereafter, “Royal Society Update]


7. ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, “Genomics and Its Impact on Medicine and Society: A 2001 Primer”, US Department of Energy Online; available from http://www.ornl.gov, accessed 25 June 2002. [hereafter “U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program”]


8. ^ Ibid.


9. ^ In the early years, the terms “genetic engineering”, “genetic manipulation”, “genetic transformation” and “transgenesis” were favored to describe the techniques of genetic modification. R.L. Paarlberg, The Politics of Precaution (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 2.


10. ^ Griffiths, supra note 4, at 4. The following online dictionaries contain further definitions of terms relevant to modern biotechnology: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X3910E/ X3910E00.htm, www.hon.ch/Library/Theme/Allergy/Glosaar... www.sciencekomm.at/advice/dict.html.


11. ^ A formal definition is offered by Mark Gerstein of Yale University: bioinformatics as “conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale.” M. Gerstein, “Bioinformatics Introduction”; available from www.primate.or.kr/ bioinformatics/Course/Yale/intro.pdf; accessed on 28 February 2003.


12. ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6.


13. ^ Commission of the European Communities (2002), Life Sciences and Biotechnology, COM(2002) 27 final, 3.


14. ^ Ibid, at 4.


15. ^ GMOs can also be used in biomining, or the inexpensive extraction of precious metals from low-grade ores using microbes. Plants are also now being developed to mine precious metals (e.g., Brassica, which is being developed to concentrate gold from the soil in their leaves). Science and Government, No. 1, June 2002, 3.


16. ^ European Commission, at 5-6.


17. ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6.


18. ^ Ibid.


19. ^ W. Bains, Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do? (London: Penguin Books, 1987), 99.


20. ^ U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, “Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology”, USIS Online; available from http://usinfo.state.govt/ topical/global/biotech, accessed 21 March 2002. [hereafter “USIS”]. Cf. C. Feldbaum, “Some History Should Be Repeated”, 295 Science, 8 February 2002, 975.


21. ^ Ibid.


22. ^ Ibid


23. ^ Ibid


24. ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6


25. ^ A number of scientists have called for the use the term “nuclear transplantation”, instead of “therapeutic cloning”, to help reduce public confusion. The term “cloning” has become synonymous with “somatic cell nuclear transfer”, a procedure that can be used for a variety of purposes, only one of which involves an intention to create a clone of an organism. They believe that the term “cloning” is best associated with the ultimate outcome or objective of the research and not the mechanism or technique used to achieve that objective. They argue that the goal of creating a nearly identical genetic copy of a human being is consistent with the term “human reproductive cloning”, but the goal of creating stem cells for regenerative medicine is not consistent with the term “therapeutic cloning”. The objective of the latter is to make tissue that is genetically compatible with that of the recipient, not to create a copy of the potential tissue recipient. Hence, “therapeutic cloning” is conceptually inaccurate. B. Vogelstein, B. Alberts, and K. Shine, “Please Don’t Call It Cloning!”, Science (15 February 2002), 1237


26. ^ D. Cameron, “Stop the Cloning”, Technology Review, 23 May 2002’. Also available from http://www.techreview.com. [hereafter “Cameron”]


27. ^ M.C. Nussbaum and C.R. Sunstein, Clones And Clones: Facts And Fantasies About Human Cloning (New York: W.W. Norton %26amp; Co., 1998), 11. However, there is wide disagreement within scientific circles whether human cloning can be successfully carried out. For instance, Dr. Rudolf Jaenisch of Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research believes that reproductive cloning shortcuts basic biological processes, thus making normal offspring impossible to produce. In normal fertilization, the egg and sperm go through a long process of maturation. Cloning shortcuts this process by trying to reprogram the nucleus of one whole genome in minutes or hours. This results in gross physical malformations to subtle neurological disturbances. Cameron, supra note 30


28. ^ Ibid


29. ^ The National Action Plan on Breast Cancer and U.S. National Institutes of Health-Department of Energy Working Group on the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) have issued several recommendations to prevent workplace and insurance discrimination. The highlights of these recommendations, which may be taken into account in developing legislation to prevent genetic discrimination, may be found at http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/ elsi/legislat.html.


30. ^ Eugenics is the study of methods of improving genetic qualities through selective breeding





[edit] Further reading





* Oliver, Richard W. The Coming Biotech Age. ISBN 0-07-135020-9.





[edit] External links


Wikibooks


Wikibooks has a book on the topic of


Genes, Technology and Policy


Wikiversity


At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Biotechnology at:


The Department of Biotechnology





* From the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO):


o Zaid, A; H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and Arabic. Rome: FAO. ISBN 92-5-104683-2.


o A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green" Biotechnology with a special emphasis on economic aspects


+ Agricultural Biotechnology - A discussion on some impacts mentioned in the above FAO report by GreenFacts


* StandardGlossary.com: Biotechnology A professional Biotechnology Glossary for beginners to learn Biotechnology


* Biotech Dictionary - Concise vocabulary of most common terms in biotechnology





[hide]


v • d • e


Major fields of technology


Applied science Artificial intelligence • Ceramic engineering • Computing technology • Electronics • Energy • Energy storage • Engineering physics • Environmental technology • Materials science %26amp; engineering • Microtechnology • Nanotechnology • Nuclear technology • Optical engineering • Quantum computing


Sports and recreation Camping equipment • Playground • Sport • Sports equipment


Information and communication Communication • Graphics • Music technology • Speech recognition • Visual technology


Industry Construction • Financial engineering • Manufacturing • Machinery • Mining


Military Bombs • Guns and Ammunition • Military technology and equipment • Naval engineering


Domestic Domestic appliances • Domestic technology • Educational technology • Food technology


Engineering Aerospace • Agricultural • Architectural • Bioengineering • Biochemical • Biomedical • Chemical • Civil • Computer • Construction • Electrical • Electronics • Environmental • Industrial • Materials • Mechanical • Mechatronics • Metallurgical • Mining • Nuclear • Petroleum • Software • Structural • Textile • Tissue


Health and safety Biomedical engineering • Bioinformatics • Biotechnology • Cheminformatics • Fire protection technology • Health technologies • Pharmaceuticals • Safety engineering • Sanitary engineering


Transport Aerospace • Aerospace engineering • Marine engineering • Motor vehicles • Space technology • Transport
Reply:Widely used component:


Restriction enzymes: are DNA-cutting enzymes found in bacteria.They are molecular scissors that cut DNA into fragments at specific sites in their sequence. Many bacteria make these enzymes to protect themselves from foreign DNA brought into their cells by viruses.


Eg: Eco RI obtained from Escherichia coli RY 13








Plasmids: are naturally occurring, stable genetic elements found in bacteria. Plasmids almost always exist and replicate independently of the chromosome of the cell in which they are found and hence used in cloning techniques and are efficient cloning vectors.


Ex: The plasmid pBR322 is one of the most commonly used E.coli cloning vectors.








Other component:


The use of antibiotic-resistance genes in genetically modified plants. Markers are needed to find or "select" the transformed cells among the multitude of untransformed ones.Marker genes are often also required in an earlier phase, when the transformation tools are constructed and subsequently amplified. These are generally bacteria or plasmids (DNA rings), which serve as "packaging" (vectors ) for the foreign gene which is to be transferred.

yoga